ABSTRACT
Biochemical recurrence (BCR) occurs frequently after prostate cancer treatment with incidence rates of approximately 20-35% at 10-year follow-up. Thus, detection and treatment of recurrence has become an important issue. Especially in recent years, due to the improvements and availability of advanced imaging options, there is a tendency toward patient-centered individualised treatment instead of blind systemic treatment. Nuclear medicine imaging modalities play a major role in BCR cases in clinical practice. Multiparametric prostate magnetic resonance imaging (mpMRI) with its high spatial resolution is gaining more importance in patient management in terms of lesion characterization. The aim of this article is to discuss mpMRI findings for detection of recurrent prostate cancer after various treatments.
References
1American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2016. Atlanta: American Cancer Society; 2016.
2Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2016. CA Cancer J Clin 2016;66:7-30.
3Oppenheimer DC, Weinberg EP, Hollenberg GM, Meyers SP. Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging of recurrent prostate cancer. J Clin Imaging Sci 2016;6:18.
4Freedland SJ, Humphreys EB, Mangold LA, et al. Risk of prostate cancer-specific mortality following biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy. JAMA 2005;294:433-439.
5Gaur S, Turkbey B. Prostate MR imaging for posttreatment evaluation and recurrence. Urol Clin North Am 2018;45:467-479.
6Mertan FV, Greer MD, Borofsky S, Kabakus IM, Merino MJ, Wood BJ, Pinto PA, Choyke PL, Turkbey B. Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging of recurrent prostate cancer. Top Magn Reson Imaging 2016;25:139-147.
7Abd-Alazeez M, Ramachandran N, Dikaios N, et al. Multiparametric MRI for 30. detection of radiorecurrent prostate cancer: added value of apparent diffusion coefficient maps and dynamic contrast-enhanced images. Prostate Cancer
Prostatic Dis 2015;18:128-136.
8Panebianco V, Barchetti F, Sciarra A, et al. Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging vs. standard care in men being evaluated for prostate cancer: a randomized study. Urol Oncol 2015;33:17.
9Notley M, Yu J, Fulcher AS, et al. Pictorial review. Diagnosis of recurrent prostate cancer and its mimics at multiparametric prostate MRI. Br J Radiol 2015;88:20150362.
10Cirillo S, Petracchini M, Scotti L, et al. Endorectal magnetic resonance imaging at 1.5 Tesla to assess local recurrence following radical prostatectomy using T2-weighted and contrast-enhanced imaging. Eur Radiol 2009;19:761-769.
11De Visschere PJ, Vargas HA, Ost P, et al. Imaging treated prostate cancer. Abdom Imaging 2013;38:1431-1446.
12Sella T, Schwartz LH, Swindle PW, et al. Suspected local recurrence after radical prostatectomy: endorectal coil MR imaging. Radiology 2004;231:379-385.
13Grant K, Lindenberg ML, Shebel H, et al. Functional and molecular imaging of localized and recurrent prostate cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2013;40(Suppl 1):48-59.
14Vargas HA, Wassberg C, Akin O, Hricak H. MR imaging of treated prostate cancer. Radiology 2012;262:26-42.
15Panebianco V, Barchetti F, Musio D, et al. Advanced imaging for the early diagnosis of local recurrence prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy. Biomed Res Int 2014;2014:827265.
16Panebianco V, Barchetti F, Sciarra A, et al. Prostate cancer recurrence after radical prostatectomy: the role of 3-T diffusion imaging in multi-parametric magnetic resonance imaging. Eur Radiol 2013;23:1745-1752.
17De Visschere PJ, De Meerleer GO, Fütterer JJ, Villeirs GM. Role of MRI in follow-up after focal therapy for prostate carcinoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2010;194:1427-1433.
18Lopes Dias J, Lucas R, Magalhaes Pina J, et al. Post-treated prostate cancer: normal findings and signs of local relapse on multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging. Abdom Imaging 2015;40:2814-2838.
19Kitajima K, Hartman RP, Froemming AT, et al. Detection of local recurrence of prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy using endorectal coil MRI at 3 T: addition of DWI and dynamic contrast enhancement to T2-weighted MRI. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2015;205:807-816.
20Silverman JM, Krebs TL. MR imaging evaluation with a transrectal surface coil of local recurrence of prostatic cancer in men who have undergone radical prostatectomy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997;168:379-385.
21Cha D, Kim CK, Park SY, et al. Evaluation of suspected soft tissue lesion in the prostate bed after radical prostatectomy using 3T multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging. Magn Reson Imaging 2015;33:407-412.
22MohlerJL, Kantoff PW, Armstrong AJ, et al. Prostate cancer, version 2.2014. J Natl Comp Cancer Netw 2014;12:686-718.
23Roach M, Hanks G, Thames H Jr, et al. Defining biochemical failure following radiotherapy with or without hormonal therapy in men with clinically localized prostate cancer: recommendations of the RTOG-ASTRO Phoenix Consensus Conference. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2006;65:965-974.
24Zumsteg ZS, Spratt DE, Romesser PB, et al. The natural history and predictors of outcome following biochemical relapse in the dose escalation era for prostate cancer patients undergoing definitive external beam radiotherapy. Eur Urol 2015;67:1009-1016.
25Zumsteg ZS, Spratt DE, Romesser PB, et al. Anatomical patterns of recurrence following biochemical relapse in the dose escalation era of external beam radiotherapy for prostate cancer. J Urol 2015;194:1624-1630.
26Sugimura K, Carrington BM, Quivey JM, Hricak H. Postirradiation changes in the pelvis: assessment with MR imaging. Radiology 1990;175:805-813.
27Coakley FV, Teh HS, Qayyum A, et al. Endorectal MR imaging and MR spectroscopic imaging for locally recurrent prostate cancer after external beam radiation therapy: preliminary experience. Radiology 2004;233:441-448.
28McCammack KC, Raman SS, Margolis DJ. Imaging of local recurrence in prostate cancer. Future Oncol 2016;12:2401-2415.
29Arrayeh E, Westphalen AC, Kurhanewicz J, et al. Does local recurrence of prostate cancer after radiation therapy occur at the site of primary tumor? Results of a longitudinal MRI and MRSI study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2012;82:787-793.
30Jalloh M, Leapman MS, Cowan JE, et al. Patterns of local failure following radiation therapy for prostate cancer. J Urol 2015;194:977-982.
31Rouviere O, Valette O, Grivolat S, et al. Recurrent prostate cancer after external beam radiotherapy: value of contrast-enhanced dynamic MRI in localizing intraprostatic tumor–correlation with biopsy findings. Urology 2004;63:922-927.
32Franiel T, Ludemann L, Taupitz M, et al. MRI before and after external beam intensity-modulated radio- therapy of patients with prostate cancer: the feasibility of monitoring of radiation-induced tissue changes using a dynamic contrast-enhanced inversion-prepared dual-contrast gradient echo sequence. Radiother Oncol 2009;93:241-245.
33Barchetti F, Panebianco V. Multiparametric MRI for recurrent prostate cancer post radical prostatectomy and postradiation therapy. Biomed Res Int 2014;2014:316272.
34Wu LM, Xu JR, Gu HY, et al. Role of magnetic resonance imaging in the detection of local prostate cancer recurrence after external beam radiotherapy and radical prostatectomy. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 2013;25:252-264.
35Thompson A, Keyes M, Pickles T, et al. Evaluating the Phoenix definition of biochemical failure after (125)I prostate brachytherapy: can PSA kinetics distinguish PSA failures from PSA bounces? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2010;78:415-421.
36Tamada T, Sone T, Jo Y, et al. Locally recurrent prostate cancer after high- dose-rate brachytherapy: the value of diffusion-weighted imaging, dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI, and T2-weighted imaging in localizing tumors. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011;197:408-414.
37Barret E, Harvey-Bryan KA, Sanchez-Salas R, et al. How to diagnose and treat focal therapy failure and recurrence? Curr Opin Urol 2014;24:241-246.
38Martino P, Scattoni V, Galosi AB, et al. Role of imag- ing and biopsy to assess local recurrence after definitive treatment for prostate carcinoma (surgery, radiotherapy, cryotherapy, HIFU). World J Urol 2011;29:595-605.
39Kirkham AP, Emberton M, Hoh IM, et al. MR imaging of prostate after treatment with high- intensity focused ultrasound. Radiology 2008;246:833-844.
